Saturday, April 26, 2014

Our Future

Weather change refers to increases in temperature at the earth’s surface and creates different scenario, such as frequent hot days and fewer cool days.  “Storms, floods, and droughts will generally be more severe as precipitation patterns change. Hurricanes may increase in intensity due to warmer ocean surface temperatures” (Riebeek pg.1).

“Climate change refers to the broader set of changes that go along with global warming, including changes in weather patterns, the oceans, ice and snow, and ecosystems”( Frequently Asked Questions pg. 1). Meaning when oceans get hotter, and ice caps are melting together they describe the word climate change.

http://www.elementshealthspace.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/10/WHO-climate-change-chart.jpg

The term global warming means when the greenhouse gases build up in the atmosphere; the gas intakes some of the sun’s heat and does not release it into the atmosphere. This causes the earth to be much warmer due to the extra heat at the earth’s surface. This extra heat affects plants, animals, and humans.
http://static.ddmcdn.com/gif/global-warming-4.gif

I believe we are currently moving extremely fast towards another ice age. I think this because everything on our planet follows the rule of equilibrium. Due to that fact, I think humans’ helping global warming is just making the ice age come faster.  
http://image.tmdb.org/t/p/original/6cX77zv88I7acchSvbO9Qx4dqxc.jpg

Milutin Milankovics theory states that every 100,000 years an ice age occurs, and it always follows that pattern (Milankovitch Cycles pg. 1). Since the last ice age was about 10,000 years ago, means we will have another ice age in 90,000 years ago, but I personally think that will happen before that time.

The article states that we are not going through global warming but supports the idea of going through global cooling. The article supports the idea of global cooling by giving us a few facts about increasing population of polar bears, water vapor in the air has declined and less vapor means lower temperatures. (Schaefer pg.1 ).

http://images.skymetweather.com/content/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/global-warming-global-cooling.jpg


Work Cited

            "Frequently Asked Questions." EPA. Environmental Protection Agency, 09 Sept. 2013. Web. 25 Apr. 2014. <http://www.epa.gov/climatestudents/faq.html>.

            "Milankovitch Cycles." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 21 Apr. 2014. Web. 26 Apr. 2014.
< http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milankovitch_cycle>.

Riebeek, Holli. "Global Warming : Feature Articles." Global Warming : Feature Articles. N.p., 03 June 2010. Web. 24 Apr. 2014. <http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/GlobalWarming/>.

Scaefer, Keith. "-So-Hot Facts About Global Warming Research–Global Cooling Part III." Yahoo! News. Yahoo!, 18 Apr. 2014. Web. 26 Apr. 2014. <http://news.yahoo.com/not-hot-facts-global-warming-150900216.html>.
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Sunday, April 20, 2014

Threat to Life

Threat to Life
Water Contamination is a chemical, physical, and biological change to a waterway due to humans activity. Water Contamination is a serious threat to the Great Lakes.The great lakes have been affected by sewage disposal, toxic contamination through heavy metals and pesticides, runoff from agriculture and urbanization, and air pollution (Teach pg. 1).  Old contaminates are being replaced with new ones. The three ways the water gets contaminated is point source pollution, nonpoint source pollution, and atmospheric pollution (Teach pg.1).
  • Point source pollution is when pollutants enters a waterway and comes into a river (Teach pg.1).
  • Nonpoint source pollution is when pollution comes from different sources (Teach pg.1).
  • Atmospheric pollution is when the water is going through the hydrologic cycle (Teach pg.1).
Water contamination affect the organisms living inside and outside the lakes, and health of human. Fish start having deformities, and humans can becoming sick and even get diseases.

Invasive Species

Since 1800 there are about 25 non-native species of fish that are in the great lakes. The invasive species effects people’s food, water and the fish’s ecosystem. Some of the invasive animal species include round goby, sea lamprey, Eurasian ruffe, and alewife (Invasive Species pg.1).
http://gallery.nanfa.org/d/23723-3/Neogobius+melanostomus++Round+Goby.jpg



http://www.buzzle.com/img/articleImages/280000-52524-38.jpg



Some of the Invasive plants are common reed, reed canary grass, purple loosestrife, curly pondweed, Eurasian milfoil, and frogbit (Invasive Species pg.1).


Preservation of the Dunes

The preservation of the dunes started in 1916. The association was built in order t o establish a national park along the Lake Michigan shoreline ( Schoon pg.214).  The plan was to preserve an 8-mile strethch of the beach ( Schoon pg. 214). Later U.S. Steel donated $250,000. In the Indiana Dunes National Lakeshore was established in 1966 and is approximately 15,000 sq.ft. ( Schoon pg. 216). Later in the park was found 1,445 different plants, and without the association these plants would never be preserved. 

Work Cited
"Invasive Species." EPA. Environmental Protection Agency, 13 May 2011. Web. 18 Apr. 2014. <http://www.epa.gov/greatlakes/invasive/>.
 Schoon, Kenneth J. Calumet Beginnings: Ancient Shorelines and Settlements at the South End of Lake Michigan. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 2003. Print.
TEACH: Water Pollution in the Great Lakes." TEACH: Water Pollution in the Great Lakes. N.p., n.d. Web. 20 Apr. 2014. <http://www.great-lakes.net/teach/pollution/water/water1.html>.

  



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History of the Settlers

The first settlers in the Calumet area were the Miami Indians. Later the land was discovered by Father Jacques Marquette and founded the first European Settlement. Lastly in 1763 the British took control of the land (Schoon pg. 55).

Two of the first groups were the William Ross and Solon Robinson families (Schoon pg. 61). The settlers would move into the Calumet Area thanks to the pre-developed Indian trails. The old Sauk trail is now 77th Ave. in Merrillville, and Lincoln Highway the country’s first highway was developed through the Indian trails (Schoon pg. 61).

After 1833, the Calumet area was known for its transportation routes. Because of the position of the area Taverns started getting established in the area. The Taverns were used to dine in, as Hotels, and as exchange of horses.  In 1832 the 1st saw mill was built, and by 1838 there were 5 mills in the area (Schoon pg. 74). 
Later sawmills had to change into gristmills due to farming, which caused the forests to be cut.

Later, canals, dams, ditches, and leeves were built. “Three canals were built in the calumet area: the first was built to give Chicago primacy on Lake Michigan, second and the largest was built to keep the sewage away from Lake Michigan, and third is the Calumet Sag Channel, which sends water from Little Calumet River to the Illinois River” (Schoon pg. 103).  “To increase the speed of the current, many of the early millwrights built dams across streams and rivers” (Schoon pg. 103). Also in 1892 a lot of land was expanded for ports and railroad tracks.

Work Cited

Schoon, Kenneth J. Calumet Beginnings: Ancient Shorelines and Settlements at the South End of Lake Michigan. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 2003.
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Natural and Geological Resources

Some of the natural and geological resources found in the calumet area are stone, sand, clay, timber, and rivers. “The first major sand mining of the dunes near Lake Michigan was to provide material for railroad embankments”(Schoon pg. 83). The sand was later used to help build U.S. Steel because it was cheap fill. The sand was also used for backfill for railroads. “Powell Moore noted that an estimated 50,000 railroad cars full were shipped out from Tolleston in 1897 alone”(Schoon pg. 99).

The bottom of the lakes and moraines were rich with clay. Soon small clay pits were discovered all over the Calumet Area, and many brickyards were built as well. Large brickyards were located along railroads for easy transportation. “By 1920 many of the brick factories had closed” ( Schoon pg. 101).

Timber was a large industry in the Calumet area; the logs were used for cabins, bridges, and railroads. “The trees had to be cleared to provide more farmland, and the trees served as a source of fuel”(Schoon pg. 88).

Rivers were mostly used for transportation. People also had fish houses where they would fish and trade for flour, buckwheat, pork, and butter (Schoon pg. 89). The water was also used for drinking.


Work Cited


Schoon, Kenneth J. Calumet Beginnings: Ancient Shorelines and Settlements at the South End of Lake Michigan. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 2003. 
 

 
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Friday, April 4, 2014

Bogs and Fens

Bogs
Bogs are an area where 50% of the vegetation are herbaceous, and water is present. “The water in a bog is largely rainwater; it is stagnant, acidic, and exceedingly poor in nutrients” (Pielou p.146). Bogs have much more color then fens. “Bogs are found almost exclusively in glaciated depressions in northeastern Illinois” (Aquatic Illinois p.1). The Volo bog is found in Illinois, and that is a bog that is opened at the center of it. It was formed 15,000 years ago during the last Winsonsinian glacier. Some plants that are part of bogs are: cattails, arrowhead, duck weed, and tamarack tree. The most interesting plant is the pitcher plant, this plant is a carnivorous plant that eats insects, mites, spiders, and small frogs (Aquatic Illinois p.1).These plants feed a variety of different animals. Some animals are dragonflies, leopard frogs, bullfrog, and snail (Aquatic Illinois p.1). If you are interested where to find a Volo bog, the best place to see one is in Volo Bog State Natural Area in Lake County (Aquatic Illinois p.1).
Cattails
Arrowhead
Duck weed
https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgdHqfohYVNvf5BogFWbEk2Y4Mj6E1MFcnNwGSk6L8uXbJyiv0dUaIHtR7cOWZC6Y_J6Txr6jREK7W4XTrAciP9vqG7zizLwo704a6IHRydI0Vdl8CUSQq6ySnaBxYiWEZqSouw91jQWhFT/s1600/
Wood+Duck+in+Duckweed.jpg
Pitcher Plant
http://wildflowers.jdcc.edu/Green%20Spotted%20Pitcher%20Plant.JPG

Fens

Fens are a type of a wet meadow that feeds on calcareous. More than 50 percent of the vegetation in a fen is herbaceous (Aquatic Illinois p.3).”The water in a fen is groundwater seepage or slowly flowing surface water, and has therefore picked up some mineral nutrients to nourish the vegetation; thus fen water moves, albeit very slowly”(Pielou p.146). Fens are also called perched bogs or hanging bogs. The plants that are usually included in fens are: pitcher plant, turtlehead, skunk cabbage, beaked spikerush, wild marsh timothy, hoary willow, rushes, dwarf bitch and cotton grass (Aquatic Illinois p.3). If interested in seeing fens you can visit Turner Lake in Lake County.
Turtlehead
 Skunk Cabbage
 Wild Marsh Timothy
 Beaked Spikerush

Work Cited

"More Aquatic Habitats Teacher's Guide." Aquatic Illinois, Illinois Department of Natural Resources. N.p.: n.p., n.d. N. pag. 2011. Web. 02 Apr. 2014. https://mycourses.purduecal.edu/bbcswebdav/pid-2980340-dt-content-rid-9845040_1/courses/cal_66429.213142/aquaticillinoismoreaqtchabteachguide%281%29.pdf.

Pielou, E. C. Fresh Water. Chicago: University of Chicago, 1998. Print.

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Pleistocene Megafauna

Pleistocene Megafauna

During the Pleistocene Epoch large animals lived that are called Pleistocene megafaunas. Most of these animals were extinct during the last glacial retreat around 10,000 years ago. Here are a few animals that lived during that time period, and some even lived in Indiana!

Dire Wolf


The Dire wolf is the largest canid to have ever existed (Canis Dirus P.1). It was about 5 feet long, and it weighted 125 or more pounds. The Dire wolf is somewhat bigger than the modern day Gray wolf, but the Dire wolf has larger and more massive teeth. Another difference is the Dire wolf had much shorter legs than the modern day wolves. The wolf was extinct around 16,000 years ago because of the extinction of its prey.


Woolly Mammoth
 
Woolly Mammoth is a specious of mammoth that has a common name “Mammothus”. The closest relative to this huge monster is the Asian Mammoth. The mammoth is the same size as the modern day elephant. The mammoth could live during the ice age, because its whole body was covered with thick fur. It lived in the Mammoth Steppe in Eurasia and North America. The animal was extinct about 4,000 years ago due to climate change, and human hunting. (Woolly Mammoth P.1)

Wild Horses
 
The wild horse is not the modern day wild horse. This ancient animal originated around 1 to 2 million years ago in North America. The wild horse lived in Asia, Europe, and Africa. The animal died off around 13,000 years ago, and I believe it was due to the climate change. (Kirkpatrick P.1)

Bison Antiquus
The Bison Antiquus is sometimes called the “ancient bison”. It was a large herbivore. It’s the direct ancestor of the American Bison. The animal is 15 to 25 percent larger than the modern day bison. The bison was about 7.5 feet tall, 15 feet long, and weighed at 3,500 pounds. The animal died off around 10,000 years ago. I don’t believe these animals became extinct; I believe they went to evolution to become the modern day American Bison. (Bison Antiquus P.1)

Giant Beaver
The giant beaver was the largest rodent in North America. It lived in Illinois and Indiana. The rodent was as big as a small bear. The front teeth were about 6 inches long. As you might think these beavers might have built huge dams, but believe it or not they had nothing to do with dams. These creatures lived around 12,000 years ago, and it is said that the climatic change made the animal go extinct. (Hauser P.1)

Stag-Moose
The Stag-Moose was a weird looking animal; it looked like it was a cross between an elk and moose. The animal was larger than the modern day moose. Their antlers were more complex than the modern day moose. It was extinct around 11,500 years ago, due to the climate change and human hunting. Also if you wish to see how this animal really looked you can visit the Illinois State Museum. (Stag-moose P.1)

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/83/Life_restoration_cervalces_scotti.jpg


Work Cited

"Bison Antiquus." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 30 Mar. 2014. Web. 01 Apr. 2014. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bison_antiquus>.

F, Jay. "The Surprising History of America's Wild Horses." LiveScience. TechMedia Network, 24 July 2008. Web. 31 Mar. 2014. <http://www.livescience.com/9589-surprising-history-america-wild-horses.html>.

Hauser, Alisa. "Giant Prehistoric Beaver's Discovery in Wicker Park Gets New Look - Wicker Park - DNAinfo.com Chicago." DNAinfo Chicago. N.p., 10 Dec. 2013. Web. 01 Apr. 2014. <http://www.dnainfo.com/chicago/20131210/wicker-park/giant-prehistoric-beavers-discovery-wicker-park-gets-new-look>.

"Stag-moose." Stag-moose. N.p., n.d. Web. 01 Apr. 2014. <http://exhibits.museum.state.il.us/exhibits/larson/cervalces.html>.

"Woolly Mammoth." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 24 Apr. 2014. Web. 01 Apr. 2014. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woolly_mammoth>.

"World of the Wolf - Canis Dirus." World of the Wolf - Canis Dirus. N.p., n.d. Web. 30 Mar. 2014. http://www.naturalworlds.org/wolf/history/Canis_dirus.htm.


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Extinction Theories

The Pleistocene Extinction Theories all discuss the extinction of the large mammals know as Mega faunas. These theories take place about 9,000 years ago during the last Wisconsinian advance. There are four main theories that scientist predict happened: Climate change, Humanity presence, Human disease, Comet. The climate change theory states that during the increase and decrease in the climate temperature the faunas that could not adapt to the intense change started dying off. The humanity presence theory talks about when humans started moving and spreading across the planet, they started hunting certain animals. The human disease theory states as humans moved around and settled, they brought with them a horrible disease that the faunas could not fight off. The comet theory states that a large comet hit the Earth’s surface and exploded killing off majority of the animals.

In my opinion I believe that a few of these events occurred at the same time and caused the extinction of the mega faunas. Humans hunting and the climate change played a major role of why these animals are extinct. I believe as humans saw the climate change affecting the animals and making them week, they took their chances against large animals like mammoths and killed them off. After one species was gone, they would move on to the next and so on. 







http://www.bibliotecapleyades.net/imagenes_ciencia/asteroids_comets17_04.jpg

Work Cited

"Holocene Extinction." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 05 Mar. 2014. Web. 01 Apr. 2014. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holocene_extinction>.

"The Pleistocene Epoch." N.p., n.d. Web. 01 Apr. 2014. <https://mycourses.purduecal.edu/bbcswebdav/pid-2980340-dt-content-rid-9844464_1/courses/cal_66429.213142/Pleist%20extinction%20causes%20L8.jpg>.


"Quaternary Extinction Event." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 05 Mar. 2014. Web. 01 Apr. 2014. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quaternary_extinction_event>.

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Sunday, March 23, 2014

Glacial Waters

Glacial Waters
 “The Great Lakes began to form at the end of the last glacial period around 10,000 years ago, as retreating ice sheets carved basins into the land and they became filled with melt water.”(Great Lakes p.1) Michigan lobe began to retreat and melt into the fill-ins. The great lakes are a major water source for the Calumet area. The great lakes include the Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, and Superior. An easy way to remember the great lakes is the word “HOMES” each letter stands for one of the 5 lakes. The great lakes connect to the Atlantic Ocean through the Saint Lawrence Seaway, and they also contain 21% of the world’s surface fresh water (Great Lakes p.1)



Teays River
Teays River was a pre-glacial river that flowed before Pleistocene Ice age 2.5 million years ago. The river covered Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Virginia, West Virginia, and Kentucky. During the last Ice age the river always wiped out. The river also created several lakes due to over flow. “What killed the Teays River and gave birth to Ohio River were the retreated Southward advances of mile-thick ice sheets.”(Teays River p.1)



Ground Water

Groundwater is the water that flows the earth's surface and soil. Soil water flows a lot slower than surface water. Aquifers produce 2/3 of the populations' drinking water in the calumet region. (Indiana Geological Survey p.1)

Work Cited

"Great Lakes." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 05 Jan. 2014. Web. 19 Mar. 2014. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Lakes>.

"Indiana Geological Survey." Indiana Geological Survey. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Mar. 2014. <http://igs.indiana.edu/FossilsAndTime/LakeMichigan.cfm>.

"Teays River." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 15 Mar. 2014. Web. 23 Mar. 2014. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teays_River>.
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Saturday, March 8, 2014

Calumet Glacial Landscapes


The Ancient Moraines: Valparaiso, Tinley, and Lake Boarder

During the Pleistocene period Northern Indiana experienced a few glaciation periods. These glaciations were Wisconsinan, Illinoian, Kansan, and Nebreskan, but we only have evidence of pre-Illinoian, Illinoian, and Wisconsin. These glaciation time periods each lasted thousands of years; during their life spams each glacier would advance and retreat, and this movement destroyed any evidence of the previous movement. “Ice retreaded from Indiana 13,600 years ago. Postglacial processes of deposition and erosion then began to modify the glacial landscape, resulting in the sediments and features that make up the landscapes we see today.”(Indiana Geological Survey p.2)


Near the end of the Pleistocene Ice Age many advances and retreats happened. The last of the advances happened between 15,200 to 2,400 years ago that was the Crown Point phase. During this time most of the sediments coming from the Lake Michigan lobe were pushed into hills that formed Valparaiso Moraine; later the re-advancement of the glacier built Tinley Moraine and Lake Border Moraine. Two of the last Moraines created which you might have heard of are the Blue Island Ridge and Hobart Island (the low ridge at about 56th and Broadway in Merrillville) ( Schoon p.22).



http://onlinegeography.wikispaces.com/file/view/morriane_locations.jpg/80921733/559x508/morriane_locations.jpg

The ancient shorelines: Glenwood, Calumet, and Tolleston
In 1897, Frank Leverett proposed the names for the three ancient shorelines as Glenwood, Calumet, and Tolleston. He also proposed the name Lake Chicago which was not followed through in the future. The ancient shorelines were created by the supply of clay, sand, pebbles, and by the strong winds of the windy city. (Schoon p.26-27)

The Glenwood Shoreline

The Glenwood Shoreline was the first phase of that occurred between 14,000 – 12,200 years ago. The elevation of this magnificent shoreline was 640 feet above sea level. Scientist predict that these shorelines were developed in the area which are today Dyer and Schererville.The best remaining dune is south of U.S. 30 at Castlewood Drive in Dyer (Schoon p. 28). Also it is the only shoreline whos one side is a moraine and the other side is lake bottom land. (Schoon p.28-30)

The Calumet Shoreline

The Calumet Shoreline was the second shoreline to occur, and its elevation stood at 620 feet above sea level. The development of this shoreline was somewhat close to where the Glenwood Shoreline use to be. The shoreline was named after the little Calumet River. Also the Calumet Shoreline has a much coastline than the Glenwood Shoreline.(Schoon p. 32-35). The shore line can be seen if you drive on Ridge road in Munster (Schoon p. 33).

The High/Low Tolleston Shoreline

The High Tolleston Shoreline developed around 4,700 years ago,and the Lower Tolleston Shoreline was developed 3,800 years ago. The lower shoreline was created when the lake level dropped to its current level. The elevation stood at 603 feet above sea level. The shoreline is named after the village of Tolleston after it was so prominent to the village. Today that village is part of the city Gary. (Schoon p. 37-38). The Shoreline can be easily seen east of Michigan Avenue in the Roseland are of Chicago ( between 100th and 127th Streets) (Schoon p.36). 


Here we visited Lowell, Indiana where we found some boulders that were dropped off by a glacier all the way from Ontario, Canada.
Boulder found in Lowell, Indiana.

 This is one Route 41 going south; in the picture you see the black soil. This soil is very fertile soil due to the glacial deposits. Kankakee Outwash Plain carried melt waters away from glaciers. These waters eroded valleys, and carried tons of sand and mud. “The Kankakee Outwash Plain is the result of this large-scale deposition of sand. It extends across seven Indiana counties” ( Schoon pg. 24). Later 87 percent of the area became farm land (Schoon pg. 24).
 
U.S. 41 in Lowell, Indiana

This is right before 231; this is where the Valparaiso and Tinley moraines separate.
U.S. 41 in Lowell, Indiana

Most of you know Cedar Lake this lake was created by glacier retreat. There were tiny rivers that were under the glacier; these rivers were made by friction, and friction gives of heat and creates tiny rivers under the glacier. When the glacier retreated it melted into the caved in ground and made the lake.  
Cedar Lake at Cedar Lake, Indiana.

 Work Cited 
Schoon, Kenneth J. Calumet Beginnings: Ancient Shorelines and Settlements at the South End of Lake Michigan. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 2003.
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Calumet Geological History

Geological Time Scale is a calender base system that works with time periods. The scale divides time into different time periods as we do today with years, decades, and millenniums. This is done by studying the layers and fossils left behind by organisms before us. The youngest sediments is the layer closest to the surface, and the last layer under all the other layers in the oldest.  

Calumet Geological History
The history of the Calumet Area extends from Southern Cook County, Illinois all the way to LaPorte County, Indiana. Hundreds of Millions of years ago (Eons ago) the Calumet Area was below sea level. Much later Dinosaurs and then later mammoths ruled over this land. The great lands changed over time due to physical forces that changed the globe. The movement of the earth’s crust raised and lowered the land (Schoon p.3). Mighty glaciers later invaded the land many times (Schoon p.3). Lastly, the powerful winds eroded sand from different places (Schoon p.3).

http://igs.indiana.edu/FossilsAndTime/LakeMichigan.cfm
The three great shorelines were discovered in the 1897 by a geologist named Frank Leverett they were: Glenwood, Calumet, and Toleston.

Frank Leverett
http://um2017.org/faculty-history/faculty/frank-leverett

The Rock-Recorded History
The bedrock under the soil and sediment contains dozens of horizontal layers of limestone, sandstone, shale, and dolomite (Schoon p.12). Sandstone forms underwater near a shore, unlike the shale, limestone and dolomite they form far from shore (Schoon p.13). No igneous or metamorphic rocks can be found in the Calumet Area except the sedimentary rocks, and pebbles, cobbles, and boulders that were left behind by the northern Glaciers (Schoon p. 13). The sedimentary rocks underneath the calumet Area are about 4,000 feet thick (Schoon p.13). At the surface there is about 25-350 feet of glacial till and lake sediment (Schoon p.13).  During the Devonian period the calumet area was covered by sea water and the top surface layer was covered with shale (Schoon p.13). During the Silurian period much of the surface was covered in limestone which later transformed to dolomite (Schoon p.13).  During the Ordovician period the surface was covered with shale, sandstone, limestone, and dolomite (Schoon p.13).  During the Cambrian period the later was primarily sandstone (p.13). Lastly, during the Pre-Cambrian period the oldest rock found in the calumet area is granite which is formed by slow cooling of magma (Schoon p.13).  

Calumet Area Bedrock:
Kenneth J. Schoon Calumet Beginnings

Dinosaurs and Other Extraordinary Animals
Dinosaurs ruled over our land during the Jurassic, Cretaceous, and Triassic Periods, but sadly during the Ice age the glaciers destroyed the evidence of dinosaurs ever living in the Calumet area. During the last Ice Age some mammals lived in Indiana,“Among these were the American Mastodon, Jefferson’s mammoth, Harlan’s musk ox, the stag moose, saber-toothed tiger, and giant beaver (Schoon p.15-16)”.

Apatosaurus
http://guardianlv.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/Dinosaurs-Extinction-Proof-Finally-Discovered1.jpg

Mammoth
http://science.psu.edu/alert/images/Schuster7Lrg.jpg

Saber-Toother Tiger
http://www.joevenusartist.com/Images/Saber-Tooth-Cat.jpg



Evidence for the Ice Age

The evidence of the ice age being part of our lands is all around us. The evidence is till, this sediment that can be found by glaciers today. “Till is a mixture of clay, silt, sand, pebbles, and even boulders that has been deposited directly by glaciers (Schoon p.16)”. 

From Ice Age the Movie



All the information written comes from this Book- Kenneth J. Schoon: Calumet Beginnings

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